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Abstract
Classical energy efficiency metrics often overestimate real-world system performance because they assume a single-stage conversion of input energy into useful output. In practice, energy must pass through multiple stages of absorption, transport, regulation, and transformation, each subject to irreversible losses governed by thermodynamic constraints. This study introduces a universal survival–conversion framework that replaces idealized efficiency with a physically grounded formulation of useful energy production. The governing law is expressed as Euseful = Ein × Ψ × Cint, where Ein represents supplied energy, Ψ denotes the energy survival factor defined as Ψ = AE / (TE + ε), and Cint represents internal conversion capacity. The survival factor quantifies the fraction of absorbed energy that persists against transport losses and entropy-driven dissipation, while conversion capacity represents the system’s throughput limits. The framework applies consistently across biological metabolism, aerospace systems, transportation technologies, renewable energy infrastructure, computing systems, and communication networks. The proposed law provides a unified thermodynamic explanation for performance limits observed across both Earth-based and space technologies.